Regarded as one of the most important epic stories in the European geographical space, the Arthurian legend has continuously and repeatedly fascinated creators of most various backgrounds and with a vast diversity of expression modes throughout the centuries, resulting in its presence in (almost) all representation media, from novels to movies, cartoons to theatrical performances, comics to poems. The existence of a “knight culture” constructed around Christian values by the middle of the first millennium highlights in the perception of global readerships and audiences throughout centuries the European focus on existential righteousness and individual self-awareness, deeply associated with progress, continuity and straightforwardness. Based on ethnographic analysis and hermeneutic interpretation, the current article strives for a cross-cultural embedding of the King Arthur narrative within the broader context of ongoing quests for values and orientation, mercilessly challenged by globalization, on the background of the perennial need of the human being for belonging, acceptance and appreciation.
Recent media-conveyed reinvigorating narratives of Arthur’s “vulnerable masculinity” allows for historical referentiality and nationally reinforced sovereignty while promoting the wide spectrum of individual choices and personal actualization; it also challenges prevalent ideas of obedience, respect and reliability. It is a truism to assert that the most powerful men construct, express, and perform their local culture’s ideology of masculinity and that masculinity is negotiated most exhaustively through heroic leadership. On an additional layer, heroism and gender are absorbed by visions of culture mediated, perpetuated, disseminated, implemented, transcended by its stories: modes of power and gender are inscribed in the stories we tell, sustained by the language we speak, eternalized by the educational patterns we follow. Few heroes dominate their culture as thoroughly as does King Arthur. From the Dark Ages until today, from England to Europe and America and recently in Asia – most particularly observed in the realms of cinema, computer games and science fiction literature –, King Arthur is arguably the secular hero of medieval and post-medieval Western civilization. An in-depth analysis of Arthurian heroic modes both offers insights into the stereotypes and problematizes masculinity represented by the popular character.
To a remarkable degree, and from its very inception, the rich story-stock of King Arthur subverts the traditional model of warrior masculinity celebrated in the West. One persistent feature of the Arthur figure confirms his subversive status in relation to warrior masculinity. This mask of command first characterized King Arthur as vir modestus, “the moderate man” or “the humble man”, as represented in Gildas the Wise’s work from mid-6th century, which delivers one non-genealogical characteristic of the Arthurian figure, in accordance with conservative interpretations. That figure of Arthur consequently provides one alternative norm of empowered masculinity for post-heroic culture, as Arthur does not serve ends of glory or conquest, but is tied to the exercise of self-defense, preserving his group against the extremity of foreign invasion. This stays in contrast to Achilles or Alexander the Great, to Odysseus or even Charlemagne, for heroes are more commonly evoked for their image of grandeur and excess – magnitude animi (grand souls, spirits searching for glory and recognition) – than for their quest and display of modestia (humility or moderation). This earliest ascription of Arthurian character and actions clung tenaciously to the mainstream image of the hero throughout the Middle Ages:
A vir modestus is, first of all, a moderate man. It is crucial to remember that Aristotle defines virtue itself in terms of moderation, that balance of the mean between extremes. For a warrior, qualities of disciplined restraint become the dominant connotations of modestia, which thus represents an antithesis to the glamorous self-parading of figures like Alexander the Great. It is said that leaders are simultaneously projected onto and respond to their cultures by means of simplifying and energizing masks. (Wheeler, Bonnie. The Masculinity of King Arthur: From Gildas to the Nuclear Age. Quondam et Futurus, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter 1992), Scriptorium Press, 1992, 1-26/5)
It seems that the first molded “mask” of the Arthur figure was one of a vir modestus, so that the originating mask of Arthurian empowerment and masculine identity projects restraint, reticence and moderation. This comes as an anomaly even now as qualities of heroism attributed to a hero as vir modestus, for the Western tradition cherishes mayhem in its heroes, who are largely identified by action, and primarily by violent action. Such a paradigm for life finds its metaphors in struggle and destruction: life is a battle, life is a war. In literature, epic poems most fully embody this insight, as the epic genre largely defines a hero by courageous struggles against all overwhelming odds (since The Iliad, to start with, in which family, city and culture are devastated in the name of masculine heroism): war and glory are the preoccupations of the traditional Western hero, modestia being therefore rarely associated with heroism, since it connotates self-control and restrained inactivity.
This vision goes back to the idea that if life is war, courageous action is the dominant value; if life is peace, then control and temperance, usually gendered as feminine, are the dominant virtues. In such a paradigm, its metaphors are located in security and productivity. Since modestia projects qualities of restraint and calm interiority in Western culture, it too has more typically been associated with feminine virtue than with masculine prowess. Though the dominant strand of western heroism, especially epic heroism, is identified by conquest and reckless valor, the stories of King Arthur are marked by an alternative understanding of power. The traditional cultural bonding of violent aggression with heroic masculinity is unglued in the connection of this vir modestus with heroic achievement. King Arthur is the primary Western hero with whom we associate this priority-shifting quality. Throughout the centuries, the traditional and canonical King Arthur character is always to some notable degree the vir modestus, despite varying representations in the medieval story-stock, which only briefly and never quite resoundingly remind of a warrior hero. In the dominant discourse of the Middle Ages, starting with Chrétien de Troyes’s five Arthurian romances (between ca. 1170 and 1190), there is an ominous conflict between the King Arthur’s insight and his actions, as for him, violence remains morally and politically ambiguous, and he gradually becomes at his most powerful a hero whose mask of power is reticence: King Arthur is the consummate quiet man, his authority is never noisy. Even before, since Geoffrey of Monmouth’s authoritative version (completed around 1138) of the imperial Arthur which fundamentally shaped much of the subsequent Arthurian tradition, there is a specific ambivalence and uncertainty about whether force and violence can be justified. The membership of the Round Table typically includes knights from different cultures, and since knighthood respectively chivalry claim to be a cross-cultural ideals, the authority and tradition is rendered permanently uneasy with xenophobic forms of crusading propaganda. Arthurian stories show, in themselves, little chagrin about employing violence as a means to idolized ends, but the echo of the initial vir modestus haunts and limits the Arthurian core: Arthur is rarely allowed to revel in his military success, as peace-making and peace-keeping are more appropriate modes of heroic display for this vir modestus. Even in Sir Thomas Malory’s version from 1485 (Le Morte d’Arthur, originally spelled le morte Darthur which is incorrect Middle French for “The Death of Arthur”), Arthur’s triumphal movement through Europe is hailed as dynastic restoration rather than conquest. Furthermore, for Malory the mature Arthur blends traditional feminine with masculine gender roles: he learns and then unlearns his role as a conventional warrior as he fulfills and then transcends the expectations of traditional heroic masculinity. By his own example, he replaces sheerly individual warrior heroism with Round Table brotherhood and cooperation. Malory’s King Arthur is profoundly aware of the Round Table fellowship as his greatest accomplishment, though he is equally aware of its evanescent and fragile character.
Subsequent centuries would turn the Arthurian legend increasingly into a cornerstone of European cultural heritage, continuing to captivate and inspire creators across diverse mediums, reflecting its enduring appeal and universal relevance. At the heart of this fascination lies a complex and multifaceted narrative that transcends time and geography, resonating with audiences from various backgrounds, transcending its European origins. The cross-cultural analysis of King Arthur’s story reveals its potential as a bridge between different value systems, offering a rich tapestry of existential themes and moral inquiries that remain pertinent in an increasingly globalized world. King Arthur’s narrative embodies a unique blend of traditional Western heroism and a subversive redefinition of masculinity. Unlike typical warrior heroes like Achilles or Alexander the Great, Arthur is characterized by his “vulnerable masculinity” and the virtue of modestia, or moderation. This depiction challenges the conventional Western paradigm of heroism, which often celebrates violent conquest and grandiosity. Instead, Arthur’s story emphasizes self-restraint, humility, and the moral ambiguity of violence, positioning him as a vir modestus – a moderate man whose heroism lies in his ability to balance power with ethical restraints. This reinterpretation of heroic masculinity is particularly significant in the context of modern societal values. As contemporary narratives increasingly explore themes of vulnerability, emotional intelligence, and collaborative leadership, King Arthur’s character offers a compelling alternative to the traditional, aggressive male archetype. His leadership, marked by quiet authority and a focus on peace-making, resonates with contemporary audiences who value empathy and cooperation over dominance and conquest.
Furthermore, the Arthurian legend’s portrayal of a diverse and inclusive Round Table underscores its relevance in today’s multicultural world. The Round Table, symbolizing equality and fraternity among knights from different cultures, challenges xenophobic and exclusionary ideologies. This aspect of the legend promotes a vision of unity within diversity, aligning with modern ideals of social justice and global citizenship. It serves as a reminder that true leadership and heroism are not defined by one’s ability to conquer but by one’s capacity to foster inclusivity and mutual respect, resulting in political stability and economic prosperity for the people. The enduring appeal of King Arthur’s story lies, in addition, in its capacity to address the perennial human need for belonging, acceptance, and appreciation. As globalization continues to challenge traditional values and social structures, King Arthur’s quest for a just and harmonious society offers a timeless model for navigating these complexities. His narrative provides a framework for individuals and communities to reflect on their values, identities, and aspirations, encouraging a continuous quest for self-awareness and moral integrity.
In conclusion, the Arthurian legend’s rich narrative and its subversive portrayal of masculinity offer profound insights into the human condition. By emphasizing virtues such as moderation, empathy, and inclusivity, the legend challenges conventional notions of heroism and power, making it a relevant and inspiring story for contemporary audiences. As we navigate the complexities of a globalized world, King Arthur’s story serves as a beacon of hope and a guide for fostering a more just, empathetic, and inclusive society. Through its timeless themes and universal appeal, the Arthurian legend continues to enrich our cultural landscape, reminding us of the enduring power of storytelling in shaping our collective values and aspirations.
